ASPECTS OF ISLAMIC HISTORY

ASPECTS OF ISLAMIC HISTORY

Ever since the first man and woman stepped on earth, the history of human civilisation started rolling. In a broader sense that was also the beginning of the “Islamic history”. The first man Adam (alayhissalam) was a “Muslim”, an obedient servant of Allah who wholeheartedly submitted to the will of his Lord. The words ‘Islam’ and ‘Muslim’ originate from the same Arabic root which means ‘peace’ and ‘submission’. Adam was a Prophet too, who taught his progeny how to lead their life as true servants of God. From Adam to Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be to them) all the Prophets of God were bestowed with the same message, the message of teaching and leading humanity to live in the world according to the Divine will. As such they were all “Muslims”.

A human being is the emissary or caliph (al-Qur’an, 2:30) of God on earth. Man is created with the free will to choose between right and wrong. Two inherent but contrasting natures are imbedded within him, the ability to do good or evil (al-Qur’an, 91:8). This is an immense test for him. But every man is also a born Muslim by nature (fitrah), the nature of submission to the will of his Creator. According to a tradition of Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be to him), “Every child is a born Muslim….” This is a trust and a heavy burden on every human being. Unfortunately, many have decided to follow their whims and desires. God, out of His love and compassion, sent Prophets to warn and remind people of their responsibility. The Qur’an mentions twenty-five of these envoys to man. Out of them, Prophet Ibrahim (Abraham), Musa (Moses) and Isa (Jesus) [peace and blessings of Allah be to them] occupy special places in Islamic history.

The “Muslim history” beginning with Prophet Muhammad, who was a direct descendant of Prophet Ibrahim through his eldest son Ismail (Ishmael) [peace and blessings of Allah be to them], is fully recorded as it is the period for which full-fledged written historical records are available. While the messages of other Prophets were confined to time and space, Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be to him) was sent for the whole of humanity and for all time to come. He is a blessing for the universe (al-Qur’an 21:107) and he started his mission by addressing, “O! mankind,” rather than “O! my people”. Although he initiated his task with his own people of Arabia, Islam transcended all boundaries of race, colour and land. Within a decade after his death Islam spread like wildfire and engulfed the then Persian and Roman empires. Islam’s overwhelming message of love, justice and balance won the hearts and minds of the ‘conquered’ people. To those who know little about Islam, it was a miracle that elevated a barbaric people into the peak of human civility. In actual fact, the early followers of Islam created a model society with their sacrifice against all possible odds.

After the passing away of Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be to him) his mantle was carried forward by his blessed companions. The four rightly guided Caliphs ruled the embryonic Muslim empire with extreme simplicity and humility with, of course, utmost efficiency. The guidance of the Qur’an and the teachings of the Prophet were at the core of their success. Their thirty-year rule was followed by monarchy, first the Umayyads and then the Abbasids. The Umayyads ruled for about one hundred years from Damascus and expanded the frontiers of the Muslim empire from Spain in the West to China in the East. When their rule came to an end the Muslim empire was, for the first time, divided into two. The Abbasids took over the main flank and shifted their capital to Baghdad.

The Umayyads were left undisturbed with their sovereignty in Spain. The Muslim rule in Spain continued for nearly eight hundred years.

During the 500-year Abbasid rule the Muslim empire was at the peak of glory and prosperity. Creative knowledge and scholarship flourished across the Muslim world. The scholars in the major cities opened up new frontiers of knowledge which later directly influenced the European Renaissance. The treasures of Greek and Indian knowledge were revived, digested and enhanced effectively by them. Unlike in the then Christian Europe, the Muslim scholars were encouraged and patronised by the ruling class in their challenging works of science and other branches of knowledge. However, as time rolled and the new lands and people were joining the fold of Islam, the central authority was gradually diminishing. This had its long-term disastrous effect on all spheres of Muslim life.

During the last decades of Abbasid governance the ruling class became engrossed with the pleasure of life. With the material ascendancy and intellectual supremacy entered the flood of social and moral diseases, reminiscent of all the collapsing empires. As a result, the central authority started to crumble by the intrigue of the people in the upper echelon of the ruling elites. This invited, in 1258, the unprecedented destruction of Baghdad and the end of Abbasid rule by the barbaric Tatar hoards. Countless Muslim scholars, Ulema and people in authority were butchered by them. Libraries and seminaries were decimated. For some time, the rest of the empire was at the mercy of the Tatar military machine. The Muslim world could never recover from this catastrophe. It was a dark episode leading to serious internal convulsion within the Muslim nation. At that juncture of history the Ottoman Turks came forward and upheld the mantle of the Muslim empire. On another front, a mysterious event was unfolding. The descendants of the Tatar victors reverted to Islam and later on established the Muslim rule in India.

However, the downward spiral of the Muslim power continued unabated. The Muslim nation lost its central mooring and became too fragmented. While the Ottoman conquest was gaining land and people in Eastern Europe, Muslims elsewhere were gradually giving in to the emerging European powers. The fall of Granada in 1492 sealed the fate of Islam in the new world of European expansion. The expulsion and forced conversion of Muslims in Spain could not be countered even by the military might of the Turks.

While Europe was reinvigorated by their new-found intellectual freedom, the intellectual stagnation of Muslim scholars weakened them further. This put a lid on Muslim creativity. They failed to maintain pace with the European progress which was moving fast. The post-Renaissance Europe harnessed its potential and started expanding their sphere of influence across the world. The Muslim land became vulnerable to their expansionist expeditions and, like a house of cards, they were falling apart. Although there were stiff and heroic resistances from some religious leaders in many places, they were no match to the European technological and military superiority. After some humiliating defeats in the Balkans, the Ottoman Turks lost its stomach to fight back. The last nail in their coffin came when, in 1924, the already weak Ottoman Empire (the Khilafah) was abolished. The new Turkish leaders declared war against their historical past by attempting to sever its link with the Khilafah.

Apart from a few nominally independent Muslim territories, colonisation of Muslim land was total. This brought havoc to the Muslim world. The unparalleled physical, intellectual and cultural trauma created countless problems - intellectual, moral, theological, social and cultural. The legacy of these still continues today. Challenges to the Muslim people were enormous. De-colonisation and rebuilding of the Muslim nation were extremely difficult. Even when the Muslim lands were granted independence, they were systematically truncated and arbitrarily divided, only to be governed by the tyrants and despots, the brain-children of the colonial era. The legacy today is division, disharmony, distrust and fear. The Muslim world is yet to cope with these.

The Muslim world now consists of more than fifty independent nation-states with enormous resources and human potential. But most of them are run by the autocratic regimes with no accountability to anyone except their whims. Many of them are, in fact, at war with their own people. Their glorious past and present geo-political importance have made them victim of the global media onslaught. They are the underdogs in the comity of nations. In spite of unparalleled atrocities and injustices done to them in many places, they have a very bad image in the world. Often they are presented as uncivilised and barbaric.

The world today is more divided than ever before. Economic disparity, political strangulation, cultural hegemony and military superiority by some over the rest of the humanity is leading mankind toward disintegration. Religious, moral and ethical values are being trampled upon in the name of modernity and liberalisation. Societies are losing their age-old fabric and giving in to permissiveness. The situation is grim indeed. How can mankind save themselves from the dilemma between modernity and divine values?

Over fourteen hundred years ago Islam challenged the world full of oppression, injustice and perversion. It liberated human beings from the slavery of their own creation. It built a society on the basis of love, compassion, equality and freedom. Can the same Islam, with its unadulterated message and uncompromising principles, withstand the acid test of modern challenge? It all depends on the conviction and commitment of its adherents. As no nation or community has monopoly over the divine messages brought by the Prophets, it remains to be seen who can rise up to the demand of time.

MUSLIM HISTORY AT A GLANCE AFTER PROPHET MUHAMMAD (PEACE AND BLESSINGS OF ALLAH BE TO HIM)

The Rightly Guided Caliphs

Upon the death of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be to him), Abu Bakr (may Allah be pleased with him), the first adult male to embrace Islam, became caliph. Abu Bakr ruled for two years to be succeeded by Umar (may Allah  be pleased with him) who was caliph for a decade and during whose rule Islam spread extensively to the east and the west conquering the Persian Empire, Syria and Egypt. It was Umar who marched on foot at the end of the Muslim army into Jerusalem and ordered the protection of Christian sites. Umar also established the first public treasury and a sophisticated financial administration. He established many of the basic practices of Islamic government.

Umar was succeeded by Uthman (may Allah be pleased with him) who ruled for some twelve years during which time the Islamic expansion continued. He is also known as the caliph who had the definitive text of the Noble Qur’an copied and sent to the four corners of the Islamic world. He was in turn succeeded by Ali (may Allah be pleased with him) who is known to this day for his bravery. With his death the rule of the “Rightly Guided” Caliphs, who hold a special place of respect in the hearts of Muslims, came to an end.

Umayyads

The Umayyad caliphate established in 661 was to last for about a century. During this time Damascus became the capital of an Islamic world which stretched from the western borders of China to southern France.

Not only did the Islamic conquests continue during this period through North Africa to Spain and France in the West and to Sind, Central Asia and Transoxiana in the East, but the basic social and legal institutions of the newly founded Islamic world were established.

Abbasids

The Abbasids, who succeeded the Umayyads, shifted the capital to Baghdad which soon developed into an incomparable centre of learning and culture as well as the administrative and political heart of a vast world.

They ruled for over 500 years but gradually their power waned and they remained only symbolic rulers bestowing legitimacy upon various sultans and princes who wielded actual military power. The Abbasid caliphate was finally abolished when Hulagu, the Mongol ruler, captured Baghdad in 1258, destroying much of the city including its incomparable libraries.

While the Abbasids ruled in Baghdad, a number of powerful dynasties such as the Fatimids, Ayyubids and Mamluks held power in Egypt, Syria and Palestine. The most important event in this area as far as the relation between Islam and the western world was concerned was a series of Crusades declared by the Pope and espoused by various European kings. The purpose, although political, was outwardly to recapture the Holy Land, especially Jerusalem for Christianity. Although there was at the beginning some success and local European rule was set up in parts of Syria and Palestine, Muslims finally prevailed and in 1187 Saladin, the great Muslim leader, recaptured Jerusalem and defeated the Crusaders.

North Africa and Spain

When the Abbasids captured Damascus, one of the Umayyad princes escaped and undertook a long journey from there to Spain to found Umayyad rule there, thus beginning the golden age of Islam in Spain. Cordoba was established as the capital and soon became Europe’s greatest city not only in population but from the point of view of its cultural and intellectual life.

The Umayyads ruled for over two centuries until they got weakened and were replaced by local rulers. Meanwhile, in North Africa, various local dynasties held sway until two powerful Berber dynasties succeeded in uniting much of North Africa and also Spain in the 12th and 13th centuries. After them this area was ruled once again by local dynasties such as the Sharifids of Morocco who still rule in that country. As for Spain itself, the Muslim power continued to wane until the last Muslim dynasty was defeated in Granada in 1492 thus bringing nearly eight hundred years of Muslim rule in Spain to an end.

After the Mangol Invasion

The Mongols devastated the eastern lands of Islam and ruled from the Sinai Desert to India for a century. But they soon reverted to Islam and became known as the Il-Khanids. They were in turn succeeded by Timur and his descendants who made Samarqand their capital and ruled from 1369 to 1500. The sudden rise of Timur delayed the formation and expansion of the Ottoman Empire but soon the Ottomans became the dominant power in the Islamic world.

Ottoman Empire

From humble origins the Turks rose to dominate over the whole of Anatolia and even parts of Europe. In 1453 Mehmet the Conqueror captured Constantinople and put an end to the Byzantine Empire.

The Ottomans conquered much of Eastern Europe and nearly the whole of the Arab world, only Morocco and Mauritania in the West and Yemen, Hadramaut and parts of the Arabian Peninsula remaining beyond their control.

They reached their zenith of power with Suleyman the Magnificent whose armies reached Hungary and Austria. From the 17th century onward with the rise of Western European powers and later Russia, the power of the Ottomans began to wane. But they nevertheless remained a force to be reckoned with until the World War I when they were defeated by the western nations. Soon thereafter Kamal Ataturk gained power in Turkey and abolished the six centuries of rule of the Ottomans in 1924.

Persia

While the Ottomans were most concerned with the western front of their empire, to the east in Persia a new dynasty called the Safavids came to power in 1502. The Safavids established a powerful state of their own which flourished for over two centuries and became known for the flowering of arts. Their capital, Isfahan, became one of the most beautiful cities with its blue tiled mosques and exquisite houses. The Afghan invasion of 1736 put an end to the Safavid rule and prepared the independence of Afghanistan which occurred formally in the 19th century. Persia itself fell into turmoil until Nader Shah, the last Oriental conqueror, reunited the country and even conquered India. But the rule of the dynasty established by him was short-lived. The Zand dynasty soon took over to be overthrown by the Qajars in 1779 that made Tehran their capital and ruled until 1921 when they were in turn replaced by the Pahlavis.

India

As for India, Islam entered into the land east of the Indus River peacefully. Gradually Muslims gained political power beginning in the early 13th century. But this period which marked the expansion of both Islam and Islamic culture came to an end with the conquest of much of India in 1526 by Babur, one of the Timurid princes. He established the powerful Mogul empire which produced such famous rulers as Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan and which lasted, despite the gradual rise of British power in India, until 1857 when it was officially abolished.

Malaysia and Indonesia

Farther east in the Malay world, Islam began to spread in the 12th century in northern Sumatra and soon Muslim kingdoms were established in Java, Sumatra and mainland Malaysia.

Despite the colonisation of the Malay world, Islam spread in that area covering present day Indonesia, Malaysia, the southern Philippines and southern Thailand, and is still continuing in islands farther east.

Africa

As far as Africa is concerned, Islam entered into East Africa at the very beginning of the Islamic period but remained confined to the coast for some time, only the Sudan and Somaliland becoming gradually both Arabised and Islamised. West Africa felt the presence of Islam through North African traders who travelled with their camel caravans south of the Sahara. By the 14th century there were already Muslim sultanates in such areas as Mali, and Timbuctu in West Africa and Harar in East Africa had become seats of Islamic learning. Gradually Islam penetrated both inland and southward. There also appeared major charismatic figures, who inspired intense resistance against European domination. The process of the Islamisation of Africa did not cease during the colonial period and continues even today with the result that most Africans are now Muslims carrying on a tradition which has had practically as long a history in certain areas of sub-Saharan Africa as Islam itself.

Islam in America

Muslims were early arrivals in North America. By the eighteenth century there were many thousands of them, working as slaves on plantations. These early communities cut off from their heritage and families, inevitably lost their Islamic identity as time went by. Today many Afro-American Muslims play an important role in the Islamic community.

The nineteenth century, however, saw the beginnings of an influx of Arab Muslims, most of them settled down in the major industrial centres where they worshipped in hired rooms. The early twentieth century witnessed the arrival of several hundred thousand Muslims from Eastern Europe: the first Albanian mosque was opened in Maine in 1915; others soon followed, and a group of Polish Muslims opened a mosque in Brooklyn in 1928.

In 1947 the Washington Islamic Centre was founded during the term of President Truman, and several nationwide organisations were set up in the 1950s. The same period saw the establishment of other communities whose lives were in many ways modelled after Islam. More recently, numerous members of these groups have entered the fold of Muslim orthodoxy. Today there are about five million Muslims in America.

Aftermath of the Colonial Period

At the height of European colonial expansion in the 19th century, most of the Islamic world was under colonial rule with the exception of a few regions such as the heart of the Ottoman Empire, Persia, Afghanistan, Yemen and certain parts of Arabia. But even these areas were under foreign influence or, in the case of the Ottomans, under constant threat. After the World War I with the breakup of the Ottoman Empire, a number of Arab states such as Iraq became independent, others like Jordan were created as a new entity and yet others like Palestine, Syria and Lebanon were either mandated or turned into French colonies. As for Arabia, it was at this time that Saudi Arabia became finally consolidated. As for other parts of the Islamic world, Egypt, which had been ruled by the descendants of Muhammad Ali since the l9th century, became more independent as a result of the fall of the Ottomans, Turkey was turned into a secular republic by Ataturk, and the Pahlavi dynasty began a new chapter in Persia where its name reverted to its eastern traditional form of Iran. But most of the rest of the Islamic world remained under colonial rule.

Arab:     It was only after the World War II and the dismemberment of the British, French, Dutch and Spanish empires that the rest of the Islamic world gained its independence. In the Arab world, Syria and Lebanon became independent at the end of the war as did Libya and the Shaykhdoms around the Gulf and the Arabian Sea by the 1960s. The North African countries of Tunisia, Morocco and Algeria had to fight a difficult and, in the case of Algeria, long and protracted war to gain their freedom which did not come until a decade later for Tunisia and Morocco and two decades later for Algeria. Only Palestine did not become independent but was partitioned in 1948 with the establishment of the state of Israel.

India:    In India Muslims participated in the freedom movement against the British rule along with Hindus and when independence finally came in 1947, they were able to create their own homeland, Pakistan, which came into being for the sake of Islam and became the most populated Muslim state although many Muslims remained in India. In 1971, however, the two parts of the state broke up, East Pakistan becoming Bangladesh.

Far East: Farther east still, the Indonesians finally gained their independence from the Dutch and the Malays theirs from Britain. At first Singapore was part of Malaysia but it separated to become an independent state in 1963. Small colonies still persisted in the area and continued to seek their independence, the kingdom of Brunei becoming independent as recently as 1984.

Africa:     In Africa also major countries with large or majority Muslim populations such as Nigeria, Senegal and Tanzania began to gain their independence in the 1950s and 1960s with the result that by the end of the decade of the 1960s most parts of the Islamic world were formed into independent nation-states. There were, however, exceptions. The Muslim states in the Soviet Union failed to gain their autonomy or independence. The same holds true for Sinkiang (called Eastern Turkestan by Muslim geographers) while in Eritrea and the southern Philippines Muslim independence movements still continue.

Nation-States:  While the world of Islam has entered into the modern world in the form of nation-States, continuous attempts are made to create closer cooperation within the Islamic world as a whole and to bring about greater unity. This is seen not only in the meetings of the Muslim heads of state and the establishment of the OIC (Organisation of Islamic Conference; on 28 June 2011 it was renamed as Organisation of Islamic Cooperation) with its own secretariat, but also in the creation of institutions dealing with the whole of the Islamic world. Among the most important of these is the Muslim World League (Rabita al-Alam al-Islami) with its headquarters in Makkah. Saudi Arabia has in fact played a pivotal role in the creation and maintenance of such organisations.

Islam Today: The Islamic world remains today a vast land stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific, with an important presence in Europe and America, guided by the teachings of Islam and seeking to assert its own identity. Despite the presence of nationalism and various secular ideologies in their midst, Muslims wish to live in the modern world but without simply imitating blindly the ways followed by the West. The Islamic world wishes to live at peace with the West as well as the East but at the same time not to be dominated by them. It wishes to devote its resources and energies to building a better life for its people on the basis of the teachings of Islam and not to squander its resources in either internal or external conflicts. It seeks finally to create better understanding with the West and the rest of the World and to be better understood by them. The destinies of the Islamic world and the rest of the World cannot be totally separated and therefore it is only by understanding each other better that they can serve their own respective peoples more successfully and also contribute to a better life for the whole of humanity.